Humanities-issues in science and societies proposal Essay

Humanities-issues in science and societies proposal - Essay Example Topic One: Wind farms are known to affect birds through collision, displacement, barrier effects and habitat loss (Drewitt and Langston, 2006). There is some debate about how serious the impact on fish might be (Wahlberg and Westerberg, 2005). Human beings complain about certain impact on the beauty of natural landscapes, and there are suggestions that living near wind farms negatively causes an illness called â€Å"Wind Turbine Syndrome† (Pierpoint, 2009). Topic Two: Wind farms are using increasingly larger turbines, and though this may look more cost effective than smaller turbines, there are significant operation and maintenance costs to consider (â€Å"Operation and Maintenance Costs,† n.d.). Conclusion: This paper has shown that wind farms have been represented by proponents of green science and politics as an answer to mankind’s need for energy that does not depend on the burning of fossil fuels or the creation of risky nuclear power stations. The evidence shows that there is indeed a place for wind farms in energy planning. These facilities are, however, not as ecologically friendly as one might think, and the cost of building and managing them makes it unlikely that they will ever contribute more than a small proportion of human energy

Charachter Analysis Atticus Finch Essay Example for Free

Charachter Analysis Atticus Finch Essay In â€Å"To Kill a Mockingbird† by Harper Lee, Atticus Finch is a man who fights for what he believes in. He is very strong willed and always the one who will stand up for what is right, not what the most popular thing is to do. He also is often reffered to as the wisest man in his town. Atticus believes in equality among people. In his mind all people are equal and deserve equal treatment no matter what race they are. Atticus tells Jem and Scout, his two children, not to judge people until you walk in their shoes. Atticus is also a defense lawyer for his county of Maycomb. Durring his case with Tom Robinson, the black that was accused of raping a white girl, Atticus tries to change the injustices and racism in his small hometown. Atticus is a older male, about 50 years old, with a darker hair color that is turning gray as he ages. He wears glasses because his left eye is nearly blind. He said â€Å"Left eyes are the tribal curse of the Finches. He is also rather tall. His two children were once ashamed of him, because he didn’t fish or hunt, like the other childrens fathers, due to his age. But as they grew, they began appreciating him not for the activities he did on the weekend, but his morals and beliefs. Atticus is one of the most loyal, humane, and consistent with his views and beliefs than any other character in the novel. Miss Maudie states, Atticus Finch is the same in his house as he is on the public streets. His intelligence, calm wisdom, courage, humility, lack of prejudice, and strong sense of justice, causes him to be respected by everyone, including the very poor and black people. Although he is looked down on and mocked by many characters in the novel for his kindness towards the â€Å"Negros†, the people of Maycomb still respect him and keep re-electing him to be their representative in the State Legislator. Durring the trial with Tom Robinson, Atticus Finch defendes him to the best of his ability despite significant difficulties from the community. Since it was back in the time of civil unrest and racial segregation. This had a huge impact on the community, as Atticus Finch was a highly respected attorney in the white community, who ended up drawing the most adoration and respect from the entire black community for his efforts to stand up for the truth regardless of race. Atticus is a strong willed man who stands for what he belives in. His thoughts do not change because of a persons skin color. He is kind and understanding and helpful to his children as well as anyone else who may seek for help. He is a well respected man in Maycomb, because he stands for what he believes, not the popular beliefs.

Trusted Systems: Protecting Sensitive Information :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Introduction With the widespread use of the internet, networked applications have expanded to provide many services that a few years ago would have seemed impractical or futuristic. Among them are applications that allow you to find your perfect date, to file your taxes online, rent movies or even to send away gifts you don’t like. With the proliferation of the internet the demand for programs that use information in more complicated and advanced ways has risen. Commercial entities have come forward to fulfill this demand, and the internet has become the center for many applications driven by information. As information use and sharing among applications becomes more desirable we have seen the downside of sensitive information being accessible to entities for which it was not intended. When we look at the development goals of the internet and of computer networks in general we can easily see the contradictory goals that protecting privacy would present. The internet was developed by people who saw great potential in being able to share scientific and military information quickly and easily between computers. Concerns about the privacy of information created by the new applications mentioned above, give us the goal of making sure that information is only accessible by the entities that it is intended for. By definition this means making information sharing more difficult as we don’t want a legitimate user of information to be able to share that information with someone who does not have a legitimate right. For example if I submit my personal information to an insurance company, I don’t want the insurance company to share my information with others who might use it to send me advertisements or for more sinister purposes. Current computer systems a nd networks have been built with the first goal of ubiquitous access and information sharing in mind. Therefore protecting sensitive information requires us to completely rethink the way that computer systems are designed. Potentially there are two routes that we could take. One is to allow computer systems and the internet to enjoy the free architecture that they have at present but to prosecute violators with strict laws on information security. The other is to completely redesign computer systems with the additional goal that information should only be accessible by parties that the owner of the information trusts.

Effects of Nurse Staffing on Patients Outcomes Essay

This study focuses on the issue of nursing staffing and its effects on the outcomes of the patients. To begin with, the tem nursing staffing will be defined and followed by a discussion of nursing staffing in relation to the nurses themselves. Nursing staffing levels and their effects on the patient outcomes will also be discussed with regards to morbidity and mortality besides other indicators of patient outcomes, the impact of nursing staffing levels to quality of care as well as an overview of past studies as far as the relationship between nursing staffing levels and the outcome of the patient is concerned. Nursing staffing The term nursing staffing refers to the levels of nurses that are employed at a particular institution. Normally, the nursing staffing levels are measured as ratios of nurses to their patients within their institutions and the higher the ratio, the more preferred as it is thought to mean a better outcome for patients in their care whereas lower ratios are associated with poorer patient outcomes. Nursing staffing and the nurses Nursing staffing has been investigated with the nurses themselves in mind and such studies have included the Schmalenberg and Kramer study of 2009 which sought to establish and assess the factors that influence the perceptions or the opinions of nurses as far as nursing staffing levels are concerned. Nursing staffing has also been studied with regards to the negative effects on the nurses such as nurse burnout and job dissatisfaction such as the study carried out by Aiken et al in 2002. As far as international literature is concerned, most of the studies that look at the impact of nursing staffing on the nurses themselves concentrates on adverse outcomes such as physical injuries, encounters with aggression and violence, sickness and absenteeism, self reports of job satisfaction levels as well as burnout. According to the study by Schmalenberg and Kramer (2009), the nurses’ opinion of their working environment is a strong predictor of their opinions as far as the staffing of their units and of their institutions is concerned. Additionally, the factors that were found to profoundly affect this opinion are the competence of the staff, teamwork, flexible delivery system, and a balance of positions in relation to the needs of the patients that are under their care. The study by Aiken et al in 2002 revealed that there was a higher chance of nurses experiencing job related burnout in hospitals with high Patient nurse ratios. Further, nurses in institutions which had the highest rates of patient to nurse ratios were twice likely to suffer from dissatisfaction from their jobs. These influenced the decisions of nurses to leave their current jobs and thus creating more staffing problems that would lead to more negative patient outcomes. Nursing Staffing and the Patient There are various outcomes that are thought to be directly related to the staffing of nurses in any institution are associated with the patients, such as morbidity mortality, nosocomial infections, falls, pressure ulcers, suicide, and length of hospital stay, medication errors, post operative complications, infection rates and adverse events such as cardiac or respiratory arrests, most of which are negative patient outcomes (Flynn and Mckeown, 2009). There are various studies that have focused on this relationship such as the study by Aiken et al in 2002 however, according to Liang et al (2012); most of these studies have been carried out in western countries. Flynn and Mckeown also studied the relationship between the patient outcome and the nurse staff levels in a bid to identify information that would enable nursing managers to determine the optimum nursing staff levels. The quality of care that is given in nursing homes, which is also an antecedent of the patient outcome has been investigated in studies such as the study done by Castle and Engberg min 2003. Some of the studies that have been used to investigate the relationship between patient mortality as an outcome of nursing staffing levels have been cross sectional and critics have argued that these have failed to include a direct link between staffing and individual patient experiences besides lacking sufficient statistical controls (Needleman et al 2011). One of the patients’ outcomes that have been associated with low levels of nursing staffing is the mortality of patients (Aiken et al 2002). This study was carried out in Pennsylvania hospitals whereby the patients to nurses’ ratio were in the range of 4:1 to 8:1. In the course of the study, 4535 out of 232 342 surgical patients died within thirty days (Aiken et al 2002). This study concluded that four patients less for every nurse would reduce in fewer deaths in the same time and not just in the surgical wards but among all the patients hospitalized in California (Aiken et al 2002). A study by Liang et al in 2012 confirmed the relationship between nursing staffing levels and patient mortality. Cho et al also investigated the relationship between nurse staffing and negative effects such as morbidity, mortality and medical costs. Nurse staffing levels were considered as nursing hours and as nurse proportions and the higher the number of patients that a nurse was supposed to take care of, the higher the rate of mortalities and complications such as atelectasis and pressure ulcers among others in post operative pneumonia patients (2003). This was attributed to the higher than usual demands of taking care of these patients which demanded lower patient to nurse ratios. In yet another study by Kiekkas et al in 2008, the relationship between nursing overload and mortality among intensive care unit patients was investigated whereby the nursing workload was considered the result of total patient care demands and nurse staffing levels. Of the three hundred and ninety six patients who were admitted in the intensive care unit of a Greek Hospital, one hundred and two of them died. The workload of the nurses was found to be significant especially as far as mortality as an outcome was concerned in surgical patients, medical patients, and both groups together which indicated that patient care demands were an important moderator in the course of investigating the relationship between nursing staff levels and mortality (Kiekkas et al, 2008). Staffing of nurses and work environment variables have been assessed with regards to their effects on patient outcomes in a conceptual model by Meyer et al in 2009. The study was carried out in Canadian hospitals in their cardiac and cardiovascular patient units whereby the PCDM together with regression models was tested. PCDM in this case is an acronym for the Patient Care Delivery Model and in addition to confirming the relationship between nurse staffing levels and patients outcomes , the study indicated that patient outcome are also the result of factors associated with patients themselves as well as factors associated with the nurses (Meyer et al, 2009. Additionally, Liang et al established some of the reasons behind the high patient to nurse ratio in Taiwan most prominent of which was the desire of hospitals to control their expenditure but which had negative outcomes for its patients. Flynn and Mckeown in 2009 found out that it was important for nurse managers and others that are involved in the recruitment of nurses to critically examine the common methods that are used for the purposes of determining nursing skill mix as well as staffing levels in their effectiveness in the course of health service organization and delivery. This is in spite of the fact that most studies have been unable to accurately determine or support a minimum level of nurse-patient ratios in various hospitals (Flynn and Mckeown, 2009). Castle and Engberg in 2009 proposed that poor staffing in nursing homes was the result of high rates of turnover among the patients, low staffing levels, low stability levels and low use of agency staff and that poor staffing in nursing homes is accompanied by poor patient outcomes. However, in order to enhance staffing in nursing homes, administrators should focus on all and not just a few select characteristics (Castle and Engberg, 2009). In response to the failure of cross sectional studies to establish or demonstrate a direct link between levels of nursing staffing and patient experiences besides lack of statistical controls, Needleman et al carried out their own study of the nursing staffing levels and the outcomes of the patients in 2011. This study utilized the Cox proportional hazards model and established that the staffing of nurses below the recommended levels was related to patient mortality. Conclusion This study has been a literature review with regards to nursing staffing levels and patient outcomes. The definition of nursing staffing has been defined as well as the effects of nursing staffing on the nurses themselves besides the effects of nursing staffing levels on the patient outcomes. This has been done with various studies that have been done in the past concerning the subject.

Psychological Effects of Alcoholism Essay

Alcohol is a well known substance that has been present ever since. It provides a variety of functions for different people from the earliest times until today. In the past, alcoholic beverages were served not only as thirst quencher; it also played a significant role in the aspect of religion (Watson). Alcohol connotes pleasure and sociability through the enhancement of the quality of life. Most alcoholic beverages are well represented in wine, beer, and spirits. They have been accounted for numerous positive and negative effects upon consumption (Watson). While alcohol has been proven to be beneficial if taken moderately, its misuse may lead to alcoholism. Alcoholism is one of the prevailing social problems of today. Alcoholism is noted to be a chronic disease wherein the body becomes dependent on alcohol. It is characterized with alcohol obsession, and the person with alcoholism is unable to control the amount of alcohol being taken. Alcoholism can cause serious problems and may affect a person’s relationship, health, finances, and work (â€Å"Alcoholism†). The physical effects of alcoholism are evidently well recorded. It is a general knowledge that the abuse of alcohol may lead to serious problems, most especially the abrupt deterioration of human health and its detrimental impact on the internal organs. Thus, most people often associate the impact of alcoholism on the physical health. However, what is less considered are its psychological effects that are much more damaging and equally painful to the physical effects that the alcoholic person is aware of (Briggs). It was found out that alcohol consumption and mental health are closely affiliated in numerous ways. Based from the summary presented by the institute of alcohol studies, â€Å"mental health problems can result [in] excessive drinking, but that problem drinking can lead to mental health problems† (Tolevanen et al. qtd. in Cattan and Tilford 142). Aside from this, it was suggested that external factors are major contributors to mental health and alcohol problems. These external factors include genes, social and family environment, psychological and culture influence, the perception about the impact of alcohol, and the level of acceptance for alcohol consumption (Tolevanen et al. td. in Cattan and Tilford 142) Moreover, the influence of the expectancies of alcohol greatly affects how people drink. Take for example the young and middle-aged adults. Since the said group of people has a positive perception on the effects of alcohol consumption, they tend to consume more alcohol. It was concluded that people who use alcohol consumption as a coping strategy perceive the effects of alcohol to be positive, and that alcohol reduces the repercussions of factors that induce stress (Satre and Knight qtd. n Cattan and Tilford 142). Hence, although there were evidences that alcohol consumption may have positive psychological effects, it is still apparent that the negative impact of alcohol on human psychology overshadows its positive effects. Depression, Anxiety, and Suicide Since alcoholic beverages are depressants, by the time they begin circulating within an individual’s system, they decrease the activity carried out by the nervous system to the brain (Naq). Thus, it was noted that depression may be the cause or aftermath of alcoholism. Some studies suggest that the effects of alcohol have two phases, the initial of which is that it produces a feeling of euphoria which is then generated to depression by the time the alcohol level in the blood has gone down (Institute of Alcohol Studies [IAS] 6). It was also stated that, when an individual consumes an amount of alcohol that is more than the body’s capacity, it would result in stress. In the spur of the moment, a series of psychological manifestations of stress can be observed through anxiety. Certain conditions, such as restlessness, nightmares, and overwhelming fear, are some of the anxieties felt or experienced by an alcoholic (Naq). Dependence in alcohol also results in heightened emotions. Most alcoholics are in a high risk of depression and anxiety, creating a strong link between suicide and alcoholism (IAS 6). Aggression and Violence Many researchers have proven the link between alcoholism and aggression. It was believed that the excessive consumption of alcohol does not only promote aggressive behaviors, but it may also lead to victimization. Alcohol disrupts the normal functions of the brain. Thus, alcohol encourages aggressive behavior and violence. Violence is within the category of aggression, which is characterized by behaviors that are often threatening and hostile. The percentages of alcohol related violence are alerting, and the figures are still raised in the upper limits (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services). According to Bancroft, the consumption of alcohol allows offenders to act on what they desire (47). Because of this, offenders become more insulting and intimidating. Most often than not, perpetrators deny the activity and use alcohol as an excuse. Courts sometimes condone perpetrators who blame the committed crime to drinking problems (Bancroft 48). Obsession Alcoholics are identified as intense and obsessed people (Zimberg 4). Once a person becomes dependent to alcohol, obsession with drinking is the likely result. For an alcoholic, there is no difference between a large and small amount of alcohol. Because of alcohol dependence, a person loses interest with other activities except to get the next drink (Naq). Memory loss  An alcoholic is more likely to experience periods where one cannot remember a thing, otherwise known as ‘blackouts’. It is important to take into consideration that alcohol abuse may result in memory loss, which in turn, may be psychologically damaging and self destructive at great levels (Briggs). Apart from this, the dependence in alcohol has a great association with brain damage and cognitive impairment which may lead to an advance stage known as alcoholic dementia. When such advance case of memory loss is combined with amnesia, the intellectual function of the brain is then lost (IAS 16). Socio-Psychological Effects of Alcoholism The socio-psychological effects of alcoholism may be short term or long term. One of the most prominent short term socio psychological effects of alcoholism is ‘disinhibition’. This is well manifested when an individual lacks self regulation and control which leads to numerous anti-social behaviors. Furthermore, alcohol has the capability to repress a person’s ability to respond to emotions and decrease inhibitions which, in the end, may cause the alcoholic to exhibit risky behaviors (Curtin et al. qtd. in â€Å"Short-term and Longer-term Effects†). Disinhibition also may result in activities that greatly affect the society such as crime and violence. For instance, in Australia, where alcohol is deeply embedded in the culture, out of 70% of crimes committed, 41% were done under the influence of alcohol (National Health and Medical Research qtd. in â€Å"Short-term and Longer-term Effects†). Long term socio-psychological impact of alcoholism is apparent in a family. Alcoholism is recognized as a â€Å"family disease. † In a family, the alcoholic may be a father, mother, teenager, and other close relative. Alcohol dependence of one member of the family may lead to family disruption and may put the whole family at risk that may last for a very long time. In a recent study done by the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services and SAMHSA’s (Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration) National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, the numbers of American adults who have been vulnerable to alcoholism reached up to seventy six million (Parsons). Most family problems are blamed to alcoholism (Parsons). Family members take on different characteristics as a way of adapting to the situation. In the case of the family’s child or children, various attitudes may be noticed: (1) Family hero is a way by which a child acts on the responsibilities, exhibiting obsessive perfectionism and doing things that are â€Å"too good to be true;† (2) Scapegoat, wherein misbehavior and delinquency is a form of escape to the situation; (3) Lost child is characterized with passiveness and isolation from others to withdraw from the situation; and (4) Mascot, by making fun of the situation through comic relief (Donatelle and Davis qtd. n â€Å"Short-term and Longer-term Effects†). In the case of the spouse of the alcoholic, the spouse has to take on the status of both parents. This may cause the spouse to develop feelings of hatred, self-pity, and anti-social behavior. The spouse is also likely to become extremely exhausted, leading to physical and mental illness. Moreover, the non-alcoholic parent has the tendency to neglect the children (Berger qtd. in Parsons). The effects of alcoholism are not limited to the physical aspect. It is evident that it has adverse psychological effects that do not only affect the alcoholic individual, but extend to the society where the alcoholic belongs. Furthermore, based from the results that were framed from the study, it is suggested that comprehensive analysis on the psychological effect of alcoholism according to gender should be done so as to give further justification on the subject.

Free Essays on Moral Problems

‘Moral judgments are nothing more than expressions of personal preference. While there is some point to arguing about questions of fact, moral arguments are a waste of time. The only thing at issue is what people like or don’t like’. I have probably read this statement about a million times and still do not have any qualms against it. Moral judgments are typically based on your upbringing, your likes, your religion (or non-religion), and numerous other aspects that make up your personality. Those listed traits and further attributions give you the basis of what you are going to feel morally to many issues such as: homosexuality, abortion, murder, stealing, etc. While many of us feel that we are always precise when making a judgment, this paper will show that no matter how hard we try; the above statement will always be true. In Rachels’ The Elements of Moral Philosophy; it states, â€Å"Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our moral opinions are based on our feelings, and nothing more†. Ethical Subjectivism is what the topic statement is defining. When you make a moral judgment, such as the following: I disagree with homosexuality; what is your basis for the judgment? Society, your parents, your religion – these are all things that round out your personal preferences. By making such a statement, you are in fact just stating your own opinion (which is an extension of your preferences). In the dictionary, opinion is defined as: a belief or conclusion held with confidence but not substantiated by positive knowledge or proof; in layman’s terms, it is a statement that is biased by your likes and dislikes. By using Ethical Subjectivism, it clearly explains why moral judgments are just a branch of your preferences. Ethical Subjectivism is â€Å"†¦a theory about the na ture of moral judgments. It says that no matter what moral judgments we make, we are only expressing our personal feelings, and nothing more.† The t... Free Essays on Moral Problems Free Essays on Moral Problems ‘Moral judgments are nothing more than expressions of personal preference. While there is some point to arguing about questions of fact, moral arguments are a waste of time. The only thing at issue is what people like or don’t like’. I have probably read this statement about a million times and still do not have any qualms against it. Moral judgments are typically based on your upbringing, your likes, your religion (or non-religion), and numerous other aspects that make up your personality. Those listed traits and further attributions give you the basis of what you are going to feel morally to many issues such as: homosexuality, abortion, murder, stealing, etc. While many of us feel that we are always precise when making a judgment, this paper will show that no matter how hard we try; the above statement will always be true. In Rachels’ The Elements of Moral Philosophy; it states, â€Å"Ethical Subjectivism is the idea that our moral opinions are based on our feelings, and nothing more†. Ethical Subjectivism is what the topic statement is defining. When you make a moral judgment, such as the following: I disagree with homosexuality; what is your basis for the judgment? Society, your parents, your religion – these are all things that round out your personal preferences. By making such a statement, you are in fact just stating your own opinion (which is an extension of your preferences). In the dictionary, opinion is defined as: a belief or conclusion held with confidence but not substantiated by positive knowledge or proof; in layman’s terms, it is a statement that is biased by your likes and dislikes. By using Ethical Subjectivism, it clearly explains why moral judgments are just a branch of your preferences. Ethical Subjectivism is â€Å"†¦a theory about the na ture of moral judgments. It says that no matter what moral judgments we make, we are only expressing our personal feelings, and nothing more.† The t...

Cinco Leyes Migratorias Fundamentales

Cinco Leyes Migratorias Fundamentales Las leyes migratorias de Estados Unidos regulan aspectos tan importantes y diferentes como la nacionalidad, la residencia permanente, las visas de no inmigrante, los castigos, los derechos y las responsabilidades. La materia migratoria es asunto federal, pero hay importantes aspectos que cada estado regula, asà ­ como acciones ejecutivas del presidente que afectan dichas normas, o reglamentos internos del Departamento de Estado o de Seguridad Interna y, de igual forma, sentencias acerca de inmigracià ³n dictadas por la Corte Suprema. Estas cinco leyes migratorias tienen gran alcance. Ley de Inmigracià ³n y Ciudadanà ­a  (Immigration and Nationality Act) Esta ley est en vigor desde 1952. Conocida tambià ©n como el McCarran- Warren Bill reside en Tà ­tulo 8 del U.S.C. (Cà ³digo de los Estados Unidos). Si bien ha sido enmendada en varias ocasiones, esta ley establecià ³ la estructura migratoria que aà ºn sigue en vigor. Sus puntos principales son: La adquisicià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a por nacimiento o por naturalizacià ³n. El buen carcter moral como requisito para la adquisicià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a por naturalizacià ³n. Las causas por las que una persona puede ser considerada inadmisible para ingresar a los Estados Unidos y, una vez en el paà ­s, deportada a su paà ­s de origen. Ley Hart-Celler Esta enmienda a la INA pone fin al sistema de emigracià ³n por cuotas segà ºn el paà ­s de origen. Hart-Celler establece un sistema de preferencias en el que la relacià ³n familiar, el talento y los conocimientos ayudan en el momento de solicitar el estatus migratorio. Se mantiene una cuota mxima por paà ­s dentro de cada categorà ­a y se establece que las personas que son familiares inmediatos de ciudadanos o los trabajadores comprendidos en la categorà ­a de especiales no estn sujetos a tal cuota por paà ­s. Este cambio revolucionario en el manejo de las cuotas dio origen a nuevas olas de inmigracià ³n provenientes de muchos paà ­ses diferentes. Ley de Control y Reforma Migratoria (Immigration Reform and Control Act) Esta ley tambià ©n conocida como Simpson- Mazzoli Act, se conoce popularmente como la amnistà ­a de Ronald Reagan. Gracias a esta se estima que unos tres millones de indocumentados pudieron regularizar su situacià ³n migratoria. La IRCA tambià ©n establecià ³ un mayor control en la frontera e hizo ilegal el hecho de contratar a sabiendas a un trabajador sin papeles. En la actualidad, los caminos para la legalizacià ³n de indocumentados existen, pero estas exigen requisitos estrictos y asà ­, en la prctica, es imposible para muchos inmigrantes poder resolver su situacià ³n. Ley de Responsabilidad Personal y Reconciliacià ³n de Oportunidad de Trabajo (Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation) Aunque no es en sà ­ una legislacià ³n migratoria, esta ley tuvo un gran impacto sobre los inmigrantes. La PRWORA ha sido posteriormente enmendada y la normativa que aplica hoy se resume asà ­: Los inmigrantes de la tercera edad e incapacitados tienen acceso a Medicaid, cupones de alimentos y TANF (Temporary Assistance for Needy Families). Los nià ±os residentes permanentes legales tienen acceso a cupones de alimentos.Los residentes permanentes legales que estn excluidos por ley federal de recibir acceso a servios sociales antes de cumplir los cinco aà ±os desde que obtuvieron la green card, pueden acceder a dichos servicios. Ley de Reforma de la Inmigracià ³n Ilegal y Responsabilidad Migratoria  (Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act) Esta ley de 1996, firmada por el presidente Bill Clinton cuenta con tres puntos que han tenido grandes consecuencias para la comunidad inmigrante: Permite la detencià ³n de inmigrantes por meses, e incluso hasta por dos aà ±os, antes de que vean a un juez migratorio.Posibilita los acuerdos entre las agencias federales, las estatales y las locales para la aplicacià ³n de las leyes migratorias (por ejemplo, en materia de arrestos).Crea el castigo de los tres y de los 10 aà ±os para los inmigrantes que estn ilegalmente en Estados Unidos. Leyes Migratorias Federales Recientes Ley de Inmigracià ³n de 1990: crea la categorà ­a de emigrante por visa de diversidad, es decir, la loterà ­a de green cards,  e incrementa el nà ºmero de trabajadores temporales. Ley de Ciudadanà ­a de Nià ±os de 2000: afecta a casos de adopcià ³n y tambià ©n al caso de adquisicià ³n automtica de ciudadanà ­a para hijos de un residente que se convierte en ciudadano. Ley de Reforma de Seguridad del 2002: incrementa el control fronterizo. Ley Real ID de 2005: altera quià ©n puede obtener la licencia de manejar; establece protocolos estrictos sobre quà © documentacià ³n se puede utilizar para ingresar a ciertos edificios o transportes, y altera el sistema de asilo.   Obamacare 2010 (Affordable Care Act): regula el acceso a la salud para el pà ºblico general. Este es un artà ­culo informativo, y no pretende ser asesorà ­a legal.

A Selection of Special Birthday Wishes

A Selection of Special Birthday Wishes When you receive a birthday card, is it the card or the birthday message inside that brings a smile to your face? Usually, its the message of the sender that makes the card special. So how can you make your birthday cards to friends and loved ones memorable? Store bought birthday cards are OK if you dont know the person that well, but they lack the personal touch.   A birthday card with a personalized message shows that you care, and demonstrates personal effort rather than settling for an off-the-shelf product. Birthday Quotes by William Shakespeare To me, fair friend, you never can be old. For as you were when first your eye I eyed. Such seems your beauty still. Have you not a moist eye, a dry hand, a yellow cheek, a white beard, a decreasing leg, an increasing belly? Is not your voice broken, your wind short, your chin double, your wit single, and every part  about you  blasted with antiquity? With mirth and laughter let old wrinkles come. Birthday Quotes From Singers Frank SinatraMay you live to be a hundred and may the last voice you hear be mine. Madonna Women, generally, when they reach a certain age, have accepted that they’re not allowed to behave a certain way. But I don’t follow the rules. I never did, and I’m not going to start. Birthday Quotes From Writers Anne Lamott The worst part about celebrating another birthday is the shock that youre only as well as you are. Lewis CarrollThere are three hundred and sixty-four days when you might get un-birthday presents and only one for birthday presents, you know.Annie DillardIt is ironic that the one thing that all religions recognize as separating us from our creator, our very self-consciousness, is also the one thing that divides us from our fellow creatures. It was a bitter birthday present from evolution. Wilson MiznerThe first hundred years are the hardest. Janet EvanovichRomance novels are birthday cake and life is often peanut butter and jelly. I think everyone should have lots of delicious romance novels lying around for those times when the peanut butter of life gets stuck to the roof of your mouth.Anne LamottSome people wont go the extra mile, and then on their birthday, when no one makes a fuss, they feel neglected and bitter. Birthday Quotes from Celebrities Muhammad Ali A man who views the world the same at fifty as he did at twenty has wasted thirty years of his life.Buddy ValastroCakes are special. Every birthday, every celebration ends with something sweet, a cake, and people remember. Its all about the memories.Chili DavisGrowing old is mandatory; growing up is optional.Tom WilsonWisdom doesnt necessarily come with age. Sometimes age just shows up all by itself. Birthday Quotes from Politicians Oliver Wendell Holmes For him, in vain the envious seasons roll, who bears eternal summer in his soul. Eleanor Roosevelt I think, at a child’s birth  if a mother could ask a fairy godmother to endow it with the most useful gift, that gift should be curiosity.

Global Structures and Local Cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Global Structures and Local Cultures - Essay Example We would start with looking into the definitions racism to determine, what exactly racism is. Building upon it, we would drill down into the matter that what is considered by us as racism and what really is racism but is not considered by us as so. In the end, we would be inquiring for the reasons of such a continuous racism in the human history. This definition thus shows that usually racism is considered as racism only when the racist feelings are executed by the racist. The very word racism connotes some feeling on the basis of race, but since over the history, we have observed such feelings by the majority, as only the majority could execute such feelings, the notion of racism is made limited, by the people, only to those who have such prejudices and are in a position to execute them. However, from the sociological point of view, we would be taking the definition of the racism as the feeling that one's race is superior to others', regardless of the fact that whether those feelings were executed or not. (Bell and Blumenfeld 1995) It is one of the major stereotypes regarding racism that only Whites are the racist. Such feelings are quite evident from the literature written over the period of time. (Miles and Brown 2003) It is however a noteworthy fact that whenever we talk about racism, we have in our mind the execution of the racist feelings. It is a common stereotype that we always consider the party showing the racial behavior is bad while the party to whom such behavior is shown is nice. (Carter 2000) This stereotype has been developed because we have seen the so-called racist from the perspective of the victim. But if we change the perspective, we may find that this is not always the battle of good and evil, nice or vile. People have a habit to look at everything from the perspective of discreteness, to look everything as black or white, people tend to ignore gray areas, as a result of it this perspective has been developed and rooted very firmly in the mind of people that the person who shows racist beh avior is evil while since another party is victim so being the victim makes that party as good and non-racist. Now, it is the time to look at the matter from a neutral point of view. In this regards, first of all we need to determine that execution of the racist feeling does not make a person racist, only the existence of such feeling makes it so. Secondly we need to make it sure that the so-called racist can also be nice, depending on the victim of the racism, the standpoint of the racists etc. (Leone 1978) There may be

Compare the concept of Adam and Eve and the original sin in Research Paper

Compare the concept of Adam and Eve and the original sin in Christianity and Judaism - Research Paper Example ( Penny Catechism, Article15, undated) The same document went on to say that:- All mankind has contracted the guilt and stain of original sin, except the Blessed Virgin and her Divine Son, through whose foreseen merits she was conceived without the least guilt or stain of original sin.( Penny Catechism , Article 117, undated) ) . There are two accounts of creation recorded in Genesis. These represent two strands of a very old story based upon long standing oral traditions. These have become the creations myths of both Christianity and the Judaism in which they had their founding. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy are described in Judaism as the Pentateuch, and these five books are traditionally said to be the work of Moses. His is death is however actually recorded in Deuteronomy 33, and it is generally considered that a number of different strands wrote theses books in the form we now have them in the 6th or 7th century B.C.E., round about the time of King Solomon . In Genesis Chapter One man is created and in Genesis Chapter Two the creation of Adam is described in more detail. He is made from the earth or clay. The word for ‘formed’ is one which would be used to describe how a potter creates a pot form clay ( Genesis 2 v 7, commentary, Bible New International Version, 2008). The word Adam is linked to the Hebrew word ‘Adamah’ which mean red and it is suggested that this means he was created from red clay ( Mandel 2013) . The story describes how God bought each animal to Adam, who gave then their names. He could not find a suitable helper among them. In Genesis 2 v 18 God says :- It is not good for man to be alone. I will make a helper suitable for him. Genesis 2 v 21, 22 describe the creation of Adam. She is made form part of Adam. Eve is called in Hebrew ‘Haya’ which means ‘live ‘ or ‘to live (Meaning and etymology of the name Eve, undated) . In Genesis 3 v 20 it states :- Adam named his wife Eve, because she would become the mother of all the living. In one version the two appear to be created simultaneously, but in the second version she come later. By the time both stories were written down each would have carried its own authority and could not be discarded. Living in the Garden of Eden with her husband, Eve is approached and then tempted by the serpent. She yields to the temptation offered and eats the forbidden fruit, as well as some to her husband. After this it as if they have woken up, as become aware of their nakedness and make themselves clothes. Later ( Genesis 3 v 12) Adam puts the blame on Eve. As a result God tells Eve that she will have pain in childbirth and will become subject to her husband ( Genesis 3 v 16. It is often interpreted that only Eve who is admonished, but in Genesis 3 v 17ff Adam, too is told what will happen to him as the result of his disobedience. According to Jewish teaching Eve was not created at the same time as Adam becaus e God knew that she would become a reason for complaint ( Eve, Jewish Encyclopedia ,1906). These is also a tradition of another help meet being created before Eve , Lilith , but she goes her own way and refuses to be the wife of Adam ( Hampshire County Council, undated) . According to another Jewish rabbinic tradition Eve was tempted first, as women were more likely to give in than men. Despite Eve’

The Business Relationship between Nathan and Frank Essay

The Business Relationship between Nathan and Frank - Essay Example Ethical codes seek to set standards of fair and reasonable behavior throughout the supply chain, or in the attitude towards the employee or customer. Application: Application of the law is complicated by reality, because as the case of Frank and Nathan shows, a business is by nature made up of many different individuals. Moral and economic values differ from person to person within a business situation. A business is a large organizational structure, and within this structure, there may be individuals who are inspired to behave unethically for any number of reasons—here, we are not given Frank’s reasons, but he is clearly going back on his word and breaking his promise about payment, which is unethical. He has his own reasons. Many of these reasons have to do with the goals of the individual. For example, if a person views monetary gain as their main purpose, they may be willing to put ethical issues aside in order to reach their goal with maximum efficiency, to reach their short term goals and gain advantage. They may not pay attention to the code of ethics at all, and I think this is something Frank did in the cas e. Conclusion: One potential obstacle to a strictly legal solution is that, despite the prevalence of scientific and then panoptic programs throughout the twentieth century, corruption has continued to be a strong force in the business landscape including restaurant supply and services. Part of this may be habitual: much of the graft that goes on in this environment is accepted as a sort of ritual that is basically harmless, or â€Å"honest graft.† Issue 1: Frank is certainly not showing appropriate management in his conduct towards a valued customer who is supposed to receive a discount. Then again, it could also be argued that Nathan was not being ethical either, because he did not double check, get a paper

Importance of Recruitment and Selection in the Public Sector Essay

Importance of Recruitment and Selection in the Public Sector - Essay Example Alternatively, the organization may outsource the recruiting services from a recruitment centre, which specializes in ensuring that the right workforce with the right skills receives employment at the right time from the organization. However, other HR practitioners has less involvement with recruitment and selection because these activities are delegated to line managers or outsourced, leaving the in-house practitioners limited to a few activities or overseeing the process (Tinzer, 2002:154). Recruitment and selection are the core roles of HR practitioners, although there are other activities that affect the policy of an organization and the external environment. These include business contraction or expansion, employment legislations, skills shortage and the general economic climate. Regardless of the economic climate, the process of workforce planning is not necessarily simple. Organizations must predict workforce requirements in line with future corporate objectives. Over the yea rs, the employment situation has shifted from a seller’s market to a buyer’s market and back again, especially in the public sector, thus the approach and time spent by HR practitioners need to anticipate and reflect this (Adams, 2007:97). This paper seeks to evaluate and analyze the context within which public sector recruitment occurs, as well as the factors affecting recruitment, the impact, and place of employment legislation. Additionally, the paper seeks to provide an overview on the recruitment and selection process in the public sector, considering both skills and activities (Saunders, and Thornhill, 2009:65). Demographics The impact of two factors is evident on the nature of the UK workforce, both with relation to recruitment and selection processes: demographic changes, and the adoption of traditional working patterns, which include significant growth in outsourcing. The workforce is set to diversify in terms of ethnic balance, age, and gender, drawing upon c hanges already occurred (Hyde et al., 2001:137). Concerning gender, there is a continuous trend of more women entering the labour market, raising important issue such as provision of childcare and equal pay. Concerning age, the greater longevity and falling birth rates mean that the about 46% of the UK population will be past 50, compared with only 33% in 2002. The changes in pension will also have significant impacts in this area, forcing many people to work longer. Concerning ethnicity, the government estimates that the net migration will by 2020 account for over 40% of the growth in the labour market (Caplin, and Dwyer, 2000:94). All the above issues are complex and important, thus public sector organizations need to take serious considerations during recruitment and other employment activities. Employers need to attract and retain a diverse workforce (Walliman, 2009:81). The complexity of these issues is evident from analyzing and evaluating one of the elements above: age. To ma ximize the participation of employees from different age groups as well as encourage generational diversity, the needs and expectations of each group will need consideration in designing the jobs, in induction and in recruitment activities into the organization. Although their expectations are not homogeneous, there are

Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Science - Essay Example It is one of the alkali metals having a chemical symbol â€Å"Na† with atomic number 11. Sodium is soft and silvery white metal in color. Aside from one of the most abundant elements in the planet, sodium in nature belongs to halite group which means it is highly reactive. Aside from its silvery-white color, sodium is also waxy in appearance, can easily be cut by a knife because it is soft, it reacts with oxygen once exposed to air and forms sodium oxide film (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). This is the reason why a bright and shiny surface of sodium once cut lacks luster because the sodium oxide film covers the metal. According to Resusch (par. 5), the atom of sodium has only one electron in its valence shell that at times when it losses it, it will result to lower shell valence octet which further results to obtaining a positively charged atom. Sodiums’ atomic mass is 22.98 (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). Sodium’s melting point is 97.82 °C, boiling point of 881.4 °C, density of 0.968 grams per cubic centimeter and since it is a metal, it excellently conducts electricity (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). At 298 0K, sodium is at its solid state (Winter, par. 1-8). 3. Sodium also reacts with other elements and compounds. Once sodium reacts with acid, it produces hydrogen gas. It can also be dissolved in other metallic elements such as mercury to create an alloy such as amalgam. In the periodic table of elements, it can be observed that the number of protons is what actually tries to determine a certain element among any other. However, the number of neutrons in an atom varies and this variation is considered an isotope (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). Therefore if an element is having forms of more than one, then its other forms are considered isotopes. In the case of sodium, it has one naturally occurring isotopes which is sodium-23 and it has six radioactive isotopes, which break apart and

Hamlets inexplicable fascination with death Essay

Hamlets inexplicable fascination with death - Essay Example An in-depth analysis of Hamlet’s character speaks of the fact that pathological obsession with death is one of many complex patterns of Hamlet’s psyche. This pattern will be scrutinized at-length in the following discussion to prove this argument that Hamlet’s relationship with and his attitudes towards death throughout the play an important role in destroying his reputation as a person of high social standing. If Hamlet’ action is explored in relation to death, many important aspects of the play get unraveled. This subject is very intense and open to multiple interpretations on a perceptual level due to which it is selected for this essay to be analyzed. It is worth-mentioning here that one of the most conspicuous themes of this Shakespearean tragedy is death which is evident in the way this theme interestingly influences the leading male character, the prince of Denmark. His relationship with death since the beginning of the play is very out of the ordin ary and exceptionally odd. As the story progresses, this relationship starts bordering on insanity which is why critics describe the way Hamlet reacts to death a rare experience which people do not get to witness commonly in the real world. It is claimed that â€Å"the most extraordinary of Hamlet’s universal aspects is his relationship to death† (Bloom 6). He is described as extraordinary not only because right after the news of his father’s death reaches him, he becomes filled with emotions of rage and revenge. Rather, the aspect of his personality which compels one to raise one’s eyebrows and question the equanimity of this hero is the way he becomes hopelessly interested in death on many other levels. He becomes passionate about ghosts too and develops an urge to know what happens after a person dies, how the bodies decay once buried etc. Despite being a person of high social standing and required to stay levelheaded to be an example to his people, he instead he becomes literally obsessed with the idea of death. This obsession is born first when the death of his beloved father is revealed to him by his friend Horatio. Before killing Claudius, Hamlet attempts to familiarize himself with ghosts, which speaks of his fascination for the subject of death. Instead of developing interest in other tasks to be identified as a good leader, he instead sets on finding about the reality of ghosts to know if they really live in the world after death of a person or not. He contemplates the idea of death from many perspectives which demonstrates the gradual and worrisome development of a pathological behavior which turns out to have enormous repercussions as the story unfolds. Hamlet ponders about death from a spiritual perspective when he becomes captivated by the idea of ghosts and explores it. Instead of acknowledging the concerned advances of other people who are true to him like Gertrude, he perceives them as potential antagonists preferri ng instead to look on to death as a definite solution to all his emotional and psychological problems. Little does he know that death is not the solution, but actually the driver of his gradual psychological downfall. When interpreting the enthralling idea of death on multiple levels, he is singularly most

Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Science - Essay Example It is one of the alkali metals having a chemical symbol â€Å"Na† with atomic number 11. Sodium is soft and silvery white metal in color. Aside from one of the most abundant elements in the planet, sodium in nature belongs to halite group which means it is highly reactive. Aside from its silvery-white color, sodium is also waxy in appearance, can easily be cut by a knife because it is soft, it reacts with oxygen once exposed to air and forms sodium oxide film (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). This is the reason why a bright and shiny surface of sodium once cut lacks luster because the sodium oxide film covers the metal. According to Resusch (par. 5), the atom of sodium has only one electron in its valence shell that at times when it losses it, it will result to lower shell valence octet which further results to obtaining a positively charged atom. Sodiums’ atomic mass is 22.98 (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). Sodium’s melting point is 97.82 °C, boiling point of 881.4 °C, density of 0.968 grams per cubic centimeter and since it is a metal, it excellently conducts electricity (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). At 298 0K, sodium is at its solid state (Winter, par. 1-8). 3. Sodium also reacts with other elements and compounds. Once sodium reacts with acid, it produces hydrogen gas. It can also be dissolved in other metallic elements such as mercury to create an alloy such as amalgam. In the periodic table of elements, it can be observed that the number of protons is what actually tries to determine a certain element among any other. However, the number of neutrons in an atom varies and this variation is considered an isotope (Chemistry Explained, par. 1-60). Therefore if an element is having forms of more than one, then its other forms are considered isotopes. In the case of sodium, it has one naturally occurring isotopes which is sodium-23 and it has six radioactive isotopes, which break apart and

Organisation and management issues of Alcan Essay

Organisation and management issues of Alcan - Essay Example s mentioned earlier, aluminium is a long term, and also a capital-intensive business, and as far as Lynemouth is concerned, it had begun its operations in the year 1972, and one of the major costs of operation was the power that it had to use for the process of smelting, twenty fours hours a day, all year round. In the year 1990, the plant had about 780 employees, the majority of whom were male, and who had been with the plant since its inception. Work organization was traditional, and the work turnover was low. (Newell; Scarbrough, 2002) There was in addition, a perception that the organization desired to impose changes, by using parts of already existing agreements, instead of involving the Unions. While the employees also reported that the management was not alt all communicative with them, the Union had to take up the cause, and it was requested that the management cooperate with trade unions to establish a better relationship with the employees, because the productivity of the plant was declining as a result of dissatisfaction. Gradually, there was overcapacity with the opening of new plants, and the price of aluminium started to fall, and employment also started to decline from 56,000 to 46,000. In 1991, one of the two pot lines of the plant had to be closed down, and there was a redundancy of fifty percent of the entire workforce. With only one line of operation, Lynemouth was faced with great difficulties, and the management found that they would have to somehow raise efficiency levels immediately, so that pro duction would be improved. Soon team working was brought in, with the cooperation of the trade unions, and in 1994, direct supervision was abolished, and in its place, team leaders were appointed to supervise operations, but the problem was that he could... There are certain specific issues in the Alcan Case that can be analyzed, like change, teamwork, and the managerial structure of the organization. Today, Alcan is entirely different in several aspects, from the Alcan of a mere four years ago. The company has grown operating earnings of 18% annual compound rate and has also managed to invest $8.8 billion for developing and to maintaining the growth of the organization, mainly through acquisitions and taking advantage of internal opportunities, like for example, the expansion of the Alouette Center in Quebec. These were some of the numerous strategic investments that Alcan had embarked on in the recent past, and it is because of this that Alcan has been able to effectively strengthen its global presence, and also maintain its stability and sustainability. Today, it can be stated that the main strengths of the company lie in the unique combination of its strong and committed workforce, and also because of its strong network of operation s. (Innovative aluminium and packaging Solutions Worldwide.In addition, its excellent customer base, in combination with the management’s decision to embark on and to maintain a sustainable and an innovative strategic alliance with its numerous customer and suppliers, making the organization one of the most dynamic and multilingual and multicultural organizations in the global world of today, with more than 70,000 employees in about fifty-five countries all over the world.

Crowd Management in Sport Facilities Essay Example for Free

Crowd Management in Sport Facilities Essay When conditions or circumstances warrant substantial levels of wariness, crowd management as a consequence becomes prudent. The key in getting a safe and comfortable environment for large packs of people is in planning for their management. There is considerable prominence on crowd management planning and implementation since it is important to provide a safe environment for everyone. Crowd management must take into account all the rudiments of an event especially the type of event, for example a circus, sporting, concert, or carnival event. It must also view characteristics of the facility, dimension and demeanor of the crowd, methods of entry, communications, crowd control, plus queuing (Herb, 1998). As in all management, it must also include planning, arranging, staffing, directing in addition to evaluating. Crowd management is best defined as every element of the game or event from the design of the stadium to the game itself as well as the protection of the customers from unforeseeable risk of danger from other persons or from the actual facility itself. The main criteria for gouging if crowd control procedures are sufficient and suitable depend on the kind of event, threats of aggression, existence and sufficiency of the emergency arrangement, expectation of crowd size in addition to seating arrangement, known rivalries among teams along with schools, and the use of security personnel (Herb, 1997). Crowd management is therefore paramount in sports facilities and venues because of the large masses that throng such places. Some facilities involve more sport management than others, thus would require more crowd management during functions. Venues should be primarily assessed for safety and its ability to hold large crowds. From the evaluation, the results should be processed, conclusions drawn, proposals made and a report written to all parties involved. The team that carries out such a task should be well trained in this area and used to dealing with all sorts of events, particularly sports. Reference Herb, A. (1998) Risk Management in Sport: Issues and Strategies. London, Carolina Academic Press Miller, L. (1997) Sport Business Management. New York, Jones Barlett Publishers.

Stoma Care Reflection

Stoma Care Reflection This is a reflective account of teaching a patient stoma care, using Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988). By conceptualising the reflective cycle as commencing with a description of an event and ending with the development of an action plan, this model facilitates experiential learning. The model is praised for its focus on learning from experience rather than attempting to change experience (Rolfe et al., 2001). It also increases commitment to learning via the development of an action plan. The following components of Gibbs model will form the structure of this reflective account: description; feelings; evaluation; analysis; conclusion; and action plan. Description The teaching took place on a male surgical ward that specialises in bowel surgery. The patient, Tom, whose real name will remain anonymous in respect of confidentiality (NMC Code, 2008; NHS Confidentiality Code of Practice, DH 2003), was admitted for surgery for colorectal cancer. Tom would be provided with a temporary transverse colostomy post-surgery, which would require the learning of new skills in order for him to manage his own care needs once discharged from hospital. Being patient-centred (Pelzang, 2010), I introduced myself to Tom and asked his permission to go through some information with him, explaining that the aim was to prepare him for managing his colostomy after surgery. The four steps to teaching colostomy care, as offered by Tolch (1997), were then implemented. These four steps comprised devising a teaching plan, assessing and documenting progress, encouraging participation, and anticipating problems. Using sample equipment, I talked Tom through the procedure, step by step, with pauses to confirm his understanding or answer any questions. At first, all necessary equipment was assembled, including a stoma bag, scissors, disposal sack, soap, warm tap water, dry disposable wipes, and stoma sizing template. I discussed the equipment with Tom before showing him how to empty the pouch whilst ensuring no spillage and maintaining hygiene. Pictures were used, where appropriate, to show Tom how the peristomal skin needs to be cleaned with moistened gauze and repeated several times until the skin and stoma are clean. Tom was informed not to be alarmed by small specks of blood on the gauze, explaining that this is normal and can occur each time the stoma is cleaned due to the small blood capillaries on the stomal surface being very delicate. Teaching Tom the basics of how to empty, clean, and change his colostomy was followed by the provision of some information on signs and symptoms of potential problems or complications, such as little or no stools, increased pain, and other signs of infection, etc. It was also necessary to teach Tom how to deal with problems that might arise after hospital discharge, such as a leakage. I also provided a contact list for colostomy supplies, along with details of the Colostomy Association, which provides telephone support and written information for patients. I encouraged Tom to maintain contact with the organisation and to access it as much as he needed. This would facilitate his transition from hospital to home, which can be a stressful time for patients with a newly formed stoma (Fulham, 2008). Finally, a post-surgery teaching plan was devised collaboratively to provide reassurance that Tom would still be receiving help with developing his self-management skills once the colostomy was fitted. Feelings Initially, I was apprehensive about handling such a personal and sensitive topic with a patient, especially since I was aware that adjusting to a stoma can be both physically and psychologically challenging to the patient. I did not want to do or say anything that would in any way hinder this adjustment. I was particularly anxious of ensuring that I demonstrated that a colostomy can be self-managed effectively, whilst at the same time not being seen as dismissing any of Toms own concerns or anxieties. I could sense that Tom was anxious, which reminded me that this was more difficult for him and thus I needed to be calm and confident in order to facilitate the learning process and relieve any of Toms own stresses. I am confident that I managed to achieve this as Tom became much more relaxed as the session progressed, asking more questions and becoming more involved. I am disappointed, however, that my practice was influenced by assumptions. For example, I had not realised the importance of offering the patient the opportunity to have a family member or carer involved in the teaching process (Turnball, 2010). Assuming that the procedure being taught was so personal that the patient would not want anyone else involved in learning how to change their colostomy, I prevented Tom and his family members from having the opportunity to be more involved. Their involvement, if desired, might have been a useful process and, indeed, it would have ensured a level of consistent support on discharge from the hospital. Mezirow (1981) describes this reflection as a perspective transformation on reading the literature after a few teaching sessions with Tom, I realised that my belief system had influenced the way in which I taught Tom. Evaluation The pre-surgery teaching sessions have been successful and Tom has shown continued understanding of the implications of having a colostomy that needs regular changing. Indeed, during the last teaching session Tom took the role of teacher and showed me how to change a colostomy. He is still, understandably, nervous about when the time comes for him to do this on a regular basis, but has been reassured that he wont be expected to be completely independent post-surgery. It is likely that myself or a colleague will initially change the colostomy so that Tom can observe the procedure before gradually becoming more involved. I am aware that during this period I will need to be mindful not to show any signs of distaste when changing the colostomy as patients adjustment can be severely impacted by this (Armstrong, 2001). Indeed, I communicated sensitively at all times and was mindful of enabling Tom to be fully engage in the care process, as recommended by the Department of Health expert patient approach to health management (DH, 2001), as well as the Health Foundations co-creating health initiatives (Collins and Grazin, 2008). This appeared effective in developing a partnership with Tom so that we could work together in developing his skills to manage his colostomy. I found Toms engagement with the whole process very rewarding as it gave me much deeper insight into the needs of men preparing for a colostomy, which helped me to move beyond the basic teaching skills of changing a colostomy to a more tailored approach to teaching that addressed Toms specific needs. He was particularly concerned about the dietary implications of the colostomy and whether this would impact his social activities. My knowledge regarding the dietary aspects of colostomy care is basic and thus I was not prepared to adequately answer all of Toms questions. I did, however, provide him with an information leaflet covering such matters and told him that if he had any further questions I could find someone he could talk to. Significant psychological symptoms, such as depression and anxiety, have been reported in 20% of patients with a stoma (White, 1997). Psychological morbidity is often the result of problems coming to terms with changes in body image and altered patterns of bowel elimination. For psychological adjustment to occur, it was fundamental for me to empathise with Tom whilst also reassuring him that there should be no need to impose any long-term dietary restrictions. Food is often a great source of concern for patients and on researching the literature and talking to colleagues I am now aware of the wealth of information and advice available for patients (Persson et al., 2005). A significant challenge during the teaching process was that Tom was trying to adjust to a cancer diagnosis whilst at the same time trying to adjust to the lifestyle changes introduced by a colostomy. However, providing Tom with the skills to manage his own stoma is likely, according to the evidence, to facilitate psychological adjustment by providing a sense of control that would have previously been lost when first diagnosed (Bekkers et al., 1996). Indeed, studies have shown that increases in a patients feelings of control, which are enhanced when the patient has the appropriate set of skills to manage the situation, can be fundamental in adjusting to having a colostomy (McVey, Madill, and Fielding, 2001). Models of self-management also indicate that increasing a patients self-efficacy (confidence) to self-manage has a number of positive physical and psychological outcomes (Simmons et al., 2007). There are some skills not demonstrated within the described teaching sessions, but which would have been present if I had been teaching Tom post-operatively. For example, it will be important for me to adopt infection control precautions by wearing disposable gloves and apron (Rust, 2007). At the same time, it will be important that I explain the rationale for this to Tom so that he doesnt feel stigmatised. In preparation for this, I have made Tom aware of this pre-surgery. Analysis The teaching style adopted was based on social learning theory, which included assessing Toms readiness and ability to take an active role in learning about managing the stoma. On talking to Tom and seeing that he was keen to learn and become independent in taking care of the stoma, a teaching plan was devised. This was to be followed with the implementation of the teaching plan and then an evaluation of the process and outcome, in line with the structured approach to teaching recommended by OConnor (2005). Furthermore, patient goals were set for post-surgery stoma care in order to help Tom progress towards achieving independence (Rust, 2007). In devising the teaching plan, it was important to consider the type of colostomy Tom would be fitted with. In this case, it was a temporary transverse colostomy that would need emptying several times a day due to the elimination of soft stools. If Tom had a sigmoid colostomy, his stools would be firmer and less frequent, requiring less time and effort in management of the stoma. Kember et al. (1999) have found that students can be categorised as non-reflectors (i.e. lack evidence of deliberate appraisal), reflectors (i.e. demonstrate insight through analysis, discrimination, and evaluation), and critical reflectors (i.e. indicate a transformation from initial perspective). This reflective account has highlighted that I am a reflector and that, indeed, I tend to reflect during as well as after an event. In this case, this has enabled me to identify my professional strengths and weaknesses. Identifying my strengths has increased my self-confidence in providing care and support within this area of healthcare. It has also enabled me to identify where further professional development is needed so that I can continue to hone the skills necessary to provide high quality patient care. I agree with Pierson (1998) that reflection is a technique and a purposeful inter-subjective process, as well as with Heideggerians (1966) notion that reflection is the integration of calculative and contemplative thinking. It is a technique and resource that I shall continue to develop both professionally and personally. Conclusion As many as approximately 15,000 people in the UK undergo stoma surgery in the UK (White, 1998). Adapting to a stoma and its daily management can take time and thus teaching these patients the practical skills necessary for stoma care needs to ideally commence as soon as possible, preferably pre-surgery. Indeed, teaching needs to be conducted in a planned, organised manner, in collaboration with the patient and based on their own readiness and ability to learn about stoma care. Taking this organised approach ensures that no vital aspects of care are omitted and that the patient and healthcare provider are working towards mutually agreed goals. The psychological implications of adjusting to a colostomy must not be underestimated or overshadowed by the need for practical skills in stoma care to be taught. Instead, teaching practical skills can be viewed as another component of psychological care since psychological adjustment can be affected if patients feel that they do not have sufficient knowledge and skills to change their colostomy or deal with any problems that might arise post-discharge (Metcalf, 2001). Action Plan Clause 3 of the UKCC Code of Professional Conduct (1992) states that nurses must maintain and improve her professional knowledge and competence. In relation to my professional knowledge and competence in teaching patients colostomy care, it is essential that I take steps towards continued professional development in terms of enhancing my knowledge surrounding the dietary needs of people with a colostomy. I have begun to meet this action plan by accessing nutritional advice from the Colostomy Association, but will endeavour to examine evidence-based practice in the provision of dietary advice for patients with a new stoma. I would also like to learn some specific skills for increasing self-efficacy that I can integrate into my teaching approach. I have acquired greater insight into the importance of patient confidence in self-management. There is a wealth of evidence available for the importance of promoting self-efficacy and I intend to start increasing my knowledge in this area by reading a comprehensive systematic review on self-management programmes for cancer survivors (Davies and Batehup, 2010). In addition, intend to rectify my assumptive actions surrounding the involvement of Toms family in the education process. During our next teaching session, I will ask Tom about his feelings regarding having anyone else involved in the teaching, with any expressed wishes being checked with relevant friends and family. In conclusion, using this reflective model has helped me to realise that my learning is a proactive process accompanied by continual reflection that provides insight into areas for further professional development.

Great Expectations :: Great Expectations Essays

Great Expectations The novel great expectation was finished for the first time in 1860; it was created in weekly instalments in a weekly journal called â€Å"all year round†. The story went on for 36 weeks. This gave the author Charles Dickens few challenges he had to beat to keep the readers interests up. He used cliff hangers and other ways he needed to grab the reader’s attention. Dickens grew up in a small house in Landport, by Portsmouth, on the 7th of February. John his father was a clerk. Charles had a rough childhood, and wasn’t liked by other students due to his fragile body. That’s why he always preferred reading books instead of playing physical games. Much of Dickens hard life is expressed in his novels. The 39th chapter is a pivotal chapter because he uses it as a great changing and turning point. Like pivoting in basketball holding your left foot still on the ground and using your other leg to move around and choose a different direction or move to carry on. Charles uses authoritative and descriptive sentences. In this chapter he builds up drama and creates huge tension. In this chapter he makes the reader remember Pip’s situation. Pip received money but had to leave his family to gain it. Pip moved away and received money on a monthly basis. Dickens reminds us of Pip’s situation the readers feel that an important thing is about to happen. At this point Pip is feeling disheartened and Dickens uses bad climate to project his feelings. When Dickens uses this to project pips situation the reader’s feel sorry for Pip and can comprehend what his going through. Using the weather conditions gives Dickens another aspect on how Pip feels. But they also know he left his family for money making him look slightly guilty. The unsettled weather creates drama and gets the way Pips feels to the readers. Dickens repeats words and uses long sentences constantly this helps creating more tension. Dickens uses academic language and makes the reader more involved using words that can only describe things with the ones his chosen; making the reader involved helps them to interact more with the chapter. The language is altered to the other chapters because this one is filled with tension. As Dickens generates tension the reader’s anxiety and strain also builds up thus making the readers more concentrated into the book. Dickens makes the pressure and tension last a long time using the long sentences and words to keep the readers more intrigued. The atmosphere changes and it becomes silent because no ones ready for what’s about to hit them.

Stress affects teenagers

Stress affects adolescents about every twenty-four hours. Many feel stressed-out when they have a trial, occupation, or excessively many activities. It can even be caused from something every bit little as siting a roller coaster. Goals and challenges are the chief cause because they are thought to be difficult to finish. Stress is a well-known trigger for depression and can besides impact physical wellness. It is of import to place the causes of emphasis in a adolescent ‘s life and seek to minimise them. Stress, no affair if it is little or large, occurs in adolescents ‘ lives today. Stress is the uncomfortable feeling of holding force per unit area and it can be caused from many events. The chief causes of emphasis in a adolescent ‘s life semen from school, work, activities, friends, and household. There are two signifiers that it comes in. The first signifier is called acute emphasis, which lasts for a short period of clip. This can be caused from losing the coach, contending with a friend, or giving a address in school. Another sort of emphasis is chronic emphasis, which is long-run emphasis. Examples include repeated battle in school, illness/disability, or an unlogical fright ( highs, bugs, etc ) . Most adolescents begin with acute emphasis and so bit by bit experience overwhelmed, which develops into chronic emphasis. The causes of stress come with both internal and external effects. It depends on the individual, but the internal effects include anxiousness, crossness, and nervousness. External effects include take a breathing faster, sudating, musculuss straining, dry oral cavity, keener senses, and deficiency of energy, concerns, and illness. A stressed individual tends to hold problem paying attending and have problem remembering facts. A individual who is ambitious or a perfectionist additions emphasize more frequently. All of this can do a individual to acquire into battles and lose friends. There is a procedure in the organic structure that takes topographic point when emphasis occurs. First, a endocrine called epinephrine combines with epinephrine, which causes an â€Å" adrenaline haste † . The endocrines and chemicals cause the organic structure to increase blood force per unit area and bosom rate. These responses prepare the organic structure to cover with and retrieve from a physical onslaught. The organic structure besides suppresses the production of other chemicals to assist increase protective responses. If the encephalon ne'er puts its guard down, it develops chronic emphasis. The ability to kip is the first to travel. These effects occur if it ‘s existent of imagined ; it ‘s what we perceive. Suicide and depression can happen. Other serious effects are high blood force per unit area, reflux disease, asthma, ulcers, and megrims. Every twenty-four hours adolescents face state of affairss that can be nerve-racking, which can develop when the adolescent matures into an grownup. Finding schemes to avoid and command emphasis are good so that the individual can blend a happy life with work. To go stress-free, the individual has to alter their ideas, attitudes, feelings, communicating, response, and fortunes. Physically, adolescents must eat healthy, acquire adequate slumber ( around eight to nine hours ) , and exercising. Adolescents should retrieve to maintain thoughts into position and be optimistic. Surrounding themselves with good friends, a good degree of activities, and adequate clip to acquire school work done is indispensable.Each twenty-four hours emphasis builds up in a adolescent ‘s life, which can be negative as this carries into their maturity. Once the encephalon understands that danger is gone, all of the symptoms of emphasis are gone. Sadly, some do non recognize that the danger is gone, whic h can develop into serious jobs. Most adolescents suffer from emphasis and demand to larn how to pull off their emphasis in order to turn healthy in the ever-changing, nerve-racking universe. Exercise is a great manner to relieve emphasis. Exercise gives us the chance to acquire up and travel. Physical fittingness leads to greater assurance and self-denial ( Stephens, 1988 ) . Exercise besides lowers blood force per unit area while increasing our ability to cover with emphasis ( Ford, 2002 ) . Unfortunately, many of us bypass day-to-day exercising because we think we need to run five stat mis a twenty-four hours to do a difference. Not true. Even a 10 minute walk increases energy degrees and lowers tenseness ( Thayer, 1987, 1993 ) . There are many grounds why exercising can take to a decrease in emphasis: Exercise increases the end product of the mood-boosting chemicals your nervous system produces ( Jacobs, 1994 ) . Exercise enhances your cognitive abilities, such as memory, to some grade ( Etniers & A ; others, 1997 ) . Exercise lowers your blood force per unit area ( Perkins & A ; others, 1986 ) . Exercise has side effects, such as better slumber, that provide an emoti onal benefit. Regular exercising cuts bosom onslaught hazard in half ( Powell & A ; others, 1987 ) and increases length of service by every bit much as 2 old ages ( Paffenbarger & A ; others, 1986 ) . So after a busy agenda or a exhausting twenty-four hours on the occupation, why non travel acquire a motorcycle and running places? Your household, and friends, can surprisingly besides lead to better emphasis direction and header. A research survey done by Warr & A ; Payne in 1982 has concluded that a batch of things, one being that people who are accompanied by friends and/or household during difficult times expressed feelings of felicity while these events were taking topographic point. It should n't take a scientific survey to demo that environing yourself with supportive household, friends and colleagues can hold a positive consequence on your mental well-being, but there ‘s plentifulness of research to corroborate it. Because people are societal existences, societal support seems to move as a buffer against the effects of emphasis ( Rathus, 2007 ) . There are five definitions of societal support: emotional concern, instrument assistance, information, assessment, and socialising ( Rathus, 2007 ) . Research shows that the construct of societal support does in fact aid people cope with emphasis and in bend reduces the hazard of wellness jobs that could be the consequence of emphasis on the organic structure ( Rathus, 2007 ) . The more societal support you have, the less emphasis will hold an chance to impact you in a negative manner ( Rathus, 2007 ) . Another manner to acquire around emphasis is to seek and do some alterations in your agenda. Make certain you have a lunch period, and surely a free period to acquire some of your prep out of the manner. Try remaining in the library or even an empty schoolroom if you are allowed to after school. Sometimes you might hold better concentration if you work in a different topographic point. If you have tonss of big leagues, see dropping one. Travel down degrees in some of your categories or take easier 1s wholly. Take some of your nucleus categories during summer school to liberate up clip during the twelvemonth. Summer school categories are more set back and more merriment than you ‘d believe. Stress is inevitable, but unhealthy responses to it are non. When face with a stressor, such as a level tyre on your manner to school or work, how do you react? Is the level tyre a menace? â€Å"I ‘ll ne'er be able to repair this! This sucks! Or is it a challenge? â€Å"I can manage this. Let ‘s see, what are my options? Your assessment of the state of affairs is important. If you see the stressor as a menace, you ‘re more likely to panic and stop dead up, doing it more hard to work out your job. If, alternatively, you view the stressor as a challenge, your response will be focused, and you ‘re more likely to get the better of the obstruction ( Pinner, 2005 ) your perceptual experience of the stressor straight affects your emotional responses. The top jocks, the best instructors, and the most effectual leaders seem to boom when faced with what they perceive as a challenge. Optimism besides seems to offer some protection against the effects of emphasis. Compared with their pessimistic opposite numbers ( those with a negative attack to life ) , pupils identified as optimists have stronger immune systems and are less likely to go sick or fatigued during the last month of the semester ( Seligman, 1991 ) . Optimists besides recover more rapidly from bosom surgery than pessimists do, and, when stressed, they register lower blood force per unit area readings ( Segerstrom & A ; others, 1998 ) so, what I ‘m seeking to state here is that a good mentality on the state of affairs would more than likely mean that you would be coming through, unharmed, out of any quandary in your adolescent life. Stress is a cosmopolitan bodily and psychological procedure that we all experience. Stress is non bias to merely the schoolroom, or at place but with this information and the techniques and life styles I have included, you may happen yourself closer to psychological Utopia than of all time before on the occupation, or off.

Objectives of the Firm Essay

The standard economic assumption underlying the analysis of firms is profit maximization. Real world firms, however, might not, and many times do not, make decisions based on the profit-maximization objective, or at least exclusively on the profit-maximization objective. Other objectives include: (1) sales maximization, (2) pursuit of personal welfare, and (3) pursuit of social welfare. Although firms are assumed to make decisions that increase profit in standard economic analysis, real world firms often pursue other objectives on a day-to-day basis. Some firms set their sights on maximizing sales. For other firms the owners or employees are inclined to enhance personal living standards. And more than a few firms take steps that promote the overall welfare of society. In some cases, these other objectives help a firm pursue profit maximization. In other cases, they prevent a firm from maximizing profit. Profit Maximization Profit maximization is the process of obtaining the highest possible level of profit through the production and sale of goods and services. This is the guiding principle underlying the analysis of short-run production by a firm. In particular, economic analysis is assumed that firms undertake actions and make the decisions that increase profit. Profit is the difference between the total revenue a firm receives from selling output and the total cost of producing that output. Profit-maximization means that a firm seeks the production level that generates the greatest difference between total revenue and total cost. Consider how profit maximization might work for The Wacky Willy Company. Suppose that The Wacky Willy Company generates $100,000 of profit by producing 100,000 Stuffed Amigos, the difference between $1,000,000 of revenue and $900,000 of cost. * If profit falls from this $100,000 level when The Wacky Willy Company produces more (100,001) or fewer (99,999) Stuffed Amigos, then it is maximizing profit at 100,000. Alternatively, if profit can be increased by producing more or less, then The Wacky Willy Company is NOT maximizing profit at the current level of production. Suppose, for example, that producing 100,001 Stuffed Amigos adds an extra $11 to revenue but only $9 to cost. In this case, profit can be increased by $2, reaching $100,002, by producing one more Stuffed Amigo. As such 100,000 is NOT the profit maximizing level of production. * In contrast, suppose that producing 99,999 Stuffed Amigos reduces cost by $11 but only reduces revenue by only $9. In this case, profit can also be increased by $2, reaching $100,002, by producing one fewer Stuffed Amigo. As such 100,000 is NOT the profit maximizing level of production. Sales Maximization A reasonable, and often pursued objective of firms is to maximize sales, that is, to sell as much output as possible. Clearly sales lead to revenue, meaning that maximizing sales is also bound to maximize revenue. But as the analysis of short-run production indicates, maximizing sales does NOT necessarily maximize profit. So why do firms do it? Are firms unreasonable? Are they irrational? Do they NOT understand the basic economic principles of short-run production? For some firms, the answers to these questions could be yes. But for other firms, sales maximization is actually a reasonable, even better, alternative to profit maximization. Consider, the day-to-day production of Wacky Willy Stuffed Amigos. Suppose the President of The Wacky Willy Company, William J. Wackowski, issues a corporate directive to sell as many Stuffed Amigos as possible, to maximize sales. Is Willy Wackowski wacky? It might be that Mr. Wackowski has no knowledge of basic economic principles. Alternatively Wacky William might have more business sense than it appears. In particular, if the price received from selling Stuffed Amigos is greater than the cost of producing each one, and looks to remain that way regardless of the quantity produced, then a reasonable goal is to maximize sales. If sales are greater, then so too is profit. Wacky Willy does NOT maximize profit under these circumstances. That is, it does not produce the quantity that achieves the highest possible profit. However, with each Stuffed Amigo produced, profit increases. In fact, Wacky Willy might not KNOW the profit-maximizing production level. All it knows is that selling more Stuffed Amigos, increases profit. While sales maximization can serve as a means of pursing profit maximization, it can also prevent a firm from maximizing profit. The reason, of course, is that if sales become so large that the cost of production increases such that marginal cost exceeds marginal revenue, the maximizing sales does not maximize profit. Pursuit of Personal Welfare The people who make decisions for a business are, in fact, people. They have likes and dislikes. They have personal goals and aspirations just like people who do not make decisions for firms. On occasion these people use the firm to pursue their own personal welfare. When they do, their actions could enhance the firm’s profit maximization or, in many cases, prevent profit maximization. How about a few examples? Once again, consider William J. Wackowski, the president of The Wacky Willy Company. Perhaps Willy enjoys the finer things in life–a large house, fancy cars, and expensive vacations–which require a hefty income. As the primary stockholder of The Wacky Willy Company, when the business maximizes profit, then William J. Wackowski benefits with more income. In this case, the pursuit of personal welfare coincides with profit maximization. Alternatively, suppose that the Mr. Wackowski hates the color purple. He simply refuse to produce ANY purple Stuffed Amigos. However, market studies clearly indicate that buyers want purple Stuffed Amigos. Moreover, the purple fabric that would be used to produce purple Stuffed Amigos is significantly less expensive than other colors. Mr. Willy clearly is wacky in this case. His purple-phobia prevents profit maximization. William the Wackster might also decide to enhance his corporate lifestyle at the expense of corporate profit. He could, for example, give himself a bigger, more luxurious (but unneeded) office, a higher (but unneeded) salary, a company jet (also unneeded), season tickets to Shady Valley Primadonnas baseball team (clearly unneeded) and other (unneeded) amenities that are NOT needed to profitably produce Stuffed Amigos. These improve William’s personal welfare, but at the expense of corporate profit. Pursuit of Social Welfare The people who make decisions for firms also have social consciences. Part of their likes and dislikes might be related to the overall state of society. As such, they might use the firm to pursue social welfare, which could enhance or prevent the firm’s profit maximization. How might William J. Wackowski’s pursuit of social welfare enhance or prevent profit maximization of The Wacky Willy Company? Suppose that William wants a cleaner environment. As such, he might implement more costly environmentally â€Å"friendly† production techniques and materials. He does his part to â€Å"clean the environment,† but at the expense of company profit. Then again, Mr. Wackowski might feel that government environmental quality regulations restrict capital investment and economic growth. As such, William might have The Wacky Willy Company use part of its advertising budget to promote this view point. He might even use company revenue to set up the Wackowski Foundation for Policy Studies that is both a scientific think tank and a special interest lobbying organization with the goal of reducing environmental quality regulations. While the pursuit of social welfare is likely to reduce company profit, it could have the opposite effect as well. Such activities could give The Wacky Willy Company a likeable public image that motivates people to buy more Stuffed Amigos than they would otherwise. In fact, some firms use the pursuit of social welfare as one aspect of their overall advertising efforts. They enhance their public image at the same time they do something â€Å"good† for society. Natural Selection Whichever objective a firm pursues on a day-to-day basis, the notion of natural selection suggests that successful firms intentionally or unintentionally maximize profit. That is, the firms best suited to the economic environment, and thus generate the most profit, are the ones that tend to survive. The natural selection of business firms is an adaptation of the biological process of natural selection, in which biological entities best suited to the natural environment are the ones that survive. The concept of economic natural selection means that those firms that generate the greatest profit are the ones that avoid bankruptcy and survive to produce another day. While firms might pursue sales maximization, personal welfare, or social welfare, only those firms that also maximize profit remain in business. 2) The following   is from chapter one in the text   Financial Management and Policy, by James C. Van Horne, Copyright 1974 by Prentice-Hall. It is classic finance. THE OBJECTIVE OF THE FIRM In this [course], we assume that the objective of the firm is to maximize its value to its shareholders. Value is represented by the market price of the company’s common stock, which, in turn, is a reflection of the firm’s investment, financing, and dividend decisions. Profit Maximization vs. Wealth Maximization Frequently, maximization of profits is regarded as the proper objective of the firm, but it is not as inclusive a goal as that of maximizing shareholder wealth. For one thing, total profits are not as important as earnings per share. A firm could always raise total profits by issuing stock and using the proceeds to invest in Treasury bills. Even maximization of earnings per share, however, is not a fully appropriate objective, partly because it does not specify the timing or duration of expected returns. Is the investment project that will produce $100,000 return 5 years from now more valuable than the project that will produce annual returns of $15,000 in each of the next 5 years? An answer to this question depends upon the time value of money to the firm and to investors at the margin. Few existing stockholders would think favorably of a project that promised its first return in 100 years. We must take into account the time pattern of returns in our analysis. Another shortcoming of the objective of maximizing earnings per share is that it does not consider the risk or uncertainty of the prospective earnings stream. Some investment projects are far more risky than others. As a result, the prospective stream of earnings per share would be more uncertain if these projects were undertaken. In addition, a company will be more or less risky depending upon the amount of debt in relation to equity in its capital structure. This risk is known as financial risk; and it, too, contributes to the uncertainty of the prospective stream of earnings per share. Two companies may have the same expected future earnings per share, but if the earnings stream of one is subject to considerably more uncertainty than the earnings stream of the other, the market price per share of its stock may be less. For the reasons above, an objective of maximizing earnings per share may not be the same as maximizing market price per share. The market price of a firm’s stock represents the focal judgment of all market participants as to what the value is of the particular firm. It takes into account present and prospective future earnings per share, the timing, duration, and risk of these earnings, and any other factors that bear upon the market price of stock. The market price serves as a performance index or report card of the firm’s progress; it indicates how well management is doing in behalf of its stockholders. Management vs. Stockholders In certain situations the objectives of management may differ from those of the firms stockholders. In a large corporation whose stock is widely held, stockholders exert very little control or influence over the operations of the company. When the control of a company is separate from its ownership, management may not always act in the best interests of the stockholders [Agency Theory]. [Managers] sometimes are said to be â€Å"satisficers† rather than â€Å"maximizers†; they may be content to â€Å"play it safe† and seek an acceptable level of growth, being more concerned with perpetuating their own existence than with maximizing the value of the firm to its shareholders. The most important goal to a management [team]of this sort may be its own survival. As a result, it may be unwilling to take reasonable risks for fear of making a mistake, thereby becoming conspicuous to the outside suppliers of capital. In turn, these suppliers may pose a threat to management’s survival. It is true that in order to survive over the long run, management may have to behave in a manner that is reasonably consistent with maximizing shareholder wealth. Nevertheless, the goals of the two parties do not necessarily have to be the same. Maximization of shareholder wealth, then, is an appropriate guide for how a firm should act. When management does not act in a manner consistent with this objective, we must recognize this as a constraint and determine the opportunity cost. This cost is measurable only if we determine what the outcome would have been had the firm attempted to maximize shareholder wealth. A Normative Goal Because the principal of maximization of shareholder wealth provides a rational guide for running a business and for the efficient allocation of resources in society, we use it as our assumed objective in considering how financial decisions should be made. The purpose of capital markets is to efficiently allocate savings in an economy from ultimate savers to ultimate users of funds who invest in real assets. If savings are to be channeled to the most promising investment opportunities, a rational economic criteria must exist that governs their flow. By and large, the allocation of savings in an economy occurs on the basis of expected return and risk. The market value of a firm’s stock embodies both of these factors. It therefore reflects the market’s tradeoff between risk and return. If decisions are made in keeping with the likely effect upon the market value of its stock, a firm will attract capital only when its investment opportunities justify the use of that capital in the overall economy. Put another way, the equilibration process by which savings are allocated in an economy occurs on the basis of expected return and risk. Holding risk constant, those economic units (business firms, households, financial institutions, or governments) willing to pay the highest yield are the ones entitled to the use of funds. If rationality prevails, the economic units bidding the highest yields will be the ones with the most promising investment opportunities. As a result, savings will tend to be allocated to the most efficient users. Maximization of shareholder wealth then embodies the risk-return tradeoff of the market and is the focal point by which funds should be allocated within and among business firms. Any other objective is likely to result in the suboptimal allocation of funds and therefore lead to less than optimal level of economic want satisfaction. This is not to say that management should ignore the question of social responsibility. As related to business firms, social responsibility concerns such things as protecting the consumer, paying fair wages to employees, maintaining fair hiring practices, supporting education, and becoming actively involved in environmental issues like clean air and water. Many people feel that a firm has no choice but to act in socially responsible ways; they argue that shareholder wealth and, perhaps, the corporations vary existence depends upon its being socially responsible. However, the criteria for social responsibility are not clearly defined, making formulation of a consistent objective function difficult. Moreover, social responsibility creates certain problems for the firm. One is that it falls unevenly on different corporations. Another is that it sometimes conflicts with the objective of wealth maximization. Certain social actions, from a long-range point of view, unmistakably are in the best interests of stockholders, and there is little question that they should be undertaken. Other actions are less clear, and to engage in them may result in a decline of profits and in shareholder wealth in the long run. From the standpoint of society, this decline may produce a conflict. What is gained in having a socially desirable goal achieved may be offset in whole or part by an accompanying less efficient allocation of resources in society. The latter will result in a less than optimal growth of the economy and a lower total level of economic want satisfaction. In an era of unfilled wants and scarcity, the allocation process is extremely important. Many people feel that management should not be called upon to resolve the conflict posed above. Rather, society, with its broad general perspective, should make the decisions necessary in this area. Only society, acting through Congress and other representative governmental bodies, can judge the relative tradeoff between the achievement of a social goal and the sacrifice in the efficiency of apportioning resources that may accompany realization of the goal. With these decisions made, corporations can engage in wealth maximization and thereby efficiently allocate resources, subject, of course, to certain governmental constraints. Under such a system, corporations can be viewed as producing both private and social goods, and the maximization of shareholder wealth remains a viable corporate objective.